Suicide, Femicide, and Domesticide

Unpacking differences and overlaps—and why Empowerment Self‑Defense (ESD) is a protective strategy across all the “‑cides”

By Dr Dawn Malotane-Lindsey

Executive Summary

This white paper distinguishes suicide, femicide, and domesticide (often discussed as domestic homicide) and reviews where they overlap in causes, risk factors, and preventable pathways. Drawing on global health and criminology research, we highlight why Empowerment Self‑Defense (ESD)—a trauma‑informed, skills‑based approach emphasizing awareness, boundary‑setting, verbal de‑escalation, physical options, escape, and help‑seeking—is an important part of a multi‑sector prevention strategy. While ESD is not a substitute for mental health or judicial interventions, evidence shows it builds protective factors (self‑efficacy, help‑seeking, bystander activation) and reduces sexual assault risk, which can translate into earlier detection, safer exits, and stronger community responses across suicide prevention, femicide prevention, and domestic homicide prevention.

1) Definitions and Scope

• Suicide: Death caused by self‑directed injurious behavior with the intent to die. Public‑health agencies track suicide mortality and attempts, as well as ideation and non‑fatal self‑harm.

• Femicide: The killing of women and girls because of their gender; often includes intimate‑partner femicide and family‑related femicide, but can also include killings by non‑intimates motivated by misogyny or gender norms.

• Domesticide / Domestic Homicide: Lethal violence occurring within domestic settings—commonly intimate‑partner homicide (IPH) or family homicide. Some literature uses “domestic homicide” as the standard term; we use “domesticide” here as shorthand while clarifying scope.

2) Epidemiology—What the Data Show

Suicide:

• Approximately 700,000 people die by suicide each year worldwide; age‑standardized rates vary by region, with higher rates among men in many countries (WHO; Global Burden of Disease).• Key risk factors: prior attempts, mental‑health disorders, substance use, access to lethal means (notably firearms, pesticides), social isolation, economic stress, discrimination.

Femicide:

• UNODC/UN Women estimate tens of thousands of women and girls are killed intentionally each year; roughly half of these deaths are perpetrated by intimate partners or other family members. Recent estimates suggest on the order of ~45,000–55,000 women/girls killed annually by partners/relatives globally, equating to roughly 120–150 per day (UNODC Global Study on Homicide; UN Women updates).

• Risk factors: prior threats/strangulation, coercive control, separation/estrangement, stalking, access to firearms, unemployment, substance use, history of IPV; protective factors include shelter access, legal protection, and coordinated community responses.

Domesticide / Domestic Homicide:

• In many countries, a substantial proportion of female homicides are intimate‑partner‑related; in some, most women killed are killed by current or former partners. Firearms significantly increase lethality in domestic incidents (CDC/Everytown analyses in the U.S.; comparable findings in other firearm‑prevalent settings).

3) Overlaps & Divergences Across all the “‑cides”

Shared pathways:

• Stressors & shocks: Economic crises, displacement, conflict, and disasters elevate risks for all three outcomes by increasing stress, reducing services, and normalizing violence.

• Isolation and control: Coercive control and social isolation elevate femicide/domestic homicide risk and may also worsen suicidality via hopelessness and entrapment.

• Means access: Easy access to lethal means (firearms, pesticides, medications) increases fatality risk in both suicide and domestic homicides.

• Stigma & under‑reporting: Male victimization (in IPV and sexual violence) and suicide ideation among men can be under‑reported due to norms against help‑seeking.

Distinct dynamics:

• Intent & perpetrator: Suicide is self‑inflicted; femicide/domestic homicide involve external perpetrators. Prevention toolkits therefore differ (mental‑health treatment vs. criminal justice, protective orders, safety planning).

• Gendered patterning: Femicide is explicitly gendered; domestic homicide disproportionately affects women as victims in many contexts, though men, children, and elders are also victims.

4) Macro Conditions and the “‑cides”

Societal upheaval—war, political unrest, pandemics—correlates with spikes in intimate‑partner violence and child maltreatment. During such periods, suicide trends can diverge by subgroup: some communities show resilience, while others see increased ideation and attempts. Service disruptions, school closures, and economic strain are key mediators. Strengthened social protection, hotlines, and mobile outreach can mitigate harms.

5) Why ESD Helps Across the “‑cides” (with Evidence)

What ESD is: A structured set of skills—situational awareness, boundary‑setting, verbal de‑escalation, physical self‑defense when needed, rapid escape (“run”), and immediate help‑seeking—delivered with survivor‑centred, trauma‑informed pedagogy.

Evidence base:

• Randomized trials (e.g., EAAA in Canada) show significant reductions in sexual assault for participants, with effects persisting at 1–2 years.

• Cluster RCTs in East/Southern Africa (Kenya, Malawi) show reductions in sexual assault against girls when ESD is paired with boys’ bystander/respect training.

Relevance to femicide/domestic homicide:

• Early boundary‑setting and danger recognition support earlier exits; ESD training often includes safety planning, help‑seeking, and bystander activation (friends, neighbors, co‑workers), which are critical in IPV lethality prevention.

• Verbal and de‑escalation skills can defuse some confrontations (without promising universal efficacy); physical skills emphasize escape over fighting.

Relevance to suicide prevention:

• ESD builds self‑efficacy and help‑seeking—protective factors associated with reduced suicide risk. Instructors can be trained as gatekeepers to recognize warning signs and connect individuals to crisis lines, mental‑health care, and safety resources.

• Group‑based ESD builds social connectedness and peer support, which are protective for mental health.

6) Why Including Men and Boys Matters

• Men have higher suicide mortality in many countries; normalizing help‑seeking, emotional literacy, and peer accountability can save lives.

• Male‑focused bystander and norms‑change programs (e.g., coach‑delivered curricula, peer interventions) reduce perpetration and increase prosocial intervention—complementing ESD for women and girls.

• Parallel training strengthens community‑level safety nets that interrupt escalating IPV and create pro‑safety cultures.

7) Policy & Practice Recommendations

1. Integrate ESD with mental‑health and IPV services: co‑located referrals, shared safety planning, and data‑sharing (with privacy protections).

2. Standardize indicators: track self‑efficacy, help‑seeking, bystander actions, IPV danger assessments, and linkage to care.

3. Lethal‑means safety: partner with health and justice sectors to reduce access to firearms/pesticides in crisis periods; distribute safe‑storage tools.

4. Strengthen male engagement: scale bystander/positive‑masculinity modules; embed in schools, sports, workplaces.

5. Crisis surge capacity: ensure hotlines, shelters, and mental‑health services are resourced during macro shocks (conflict, disasters).

References

·       BMC Public Health (2018). Malawi cluster randomized trial of school-based ESD.

·       Campbell, J. C. et al. (2003). Risk factors for femicide in abusive relationships: prior threats, strangulation, firearm access, separation; American Journal of Public Health.

·       Everytown for Gun Safety & CDC. Firearms and intimate partner homicide lethality (U.S. analyses).

·       Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study. Suicide mortality and DALYs by country and sex.

·       Hollander, J. A. (2021). Women’s self-defense and sexual assault resistance; Sociology Compass.

·       Senn, C. et al. (2015). EAAA randomized trial; JAMA Pediatrics.

·       Sinclair, J. et al. (2013). Kenya cluster RCT; PLoS ONE.

·       UNODC (Global Study on Homicide) & UN Women. Gender-related killings of women and girls; intimate partner/family-related femicides (~120–150/day).

·       World Health Organization (WHO). Suicide worldwide in 2019: global health estimates; Suicide fact sheets (approx. 700,000 deaths/year).