Male Responsibility vs Positive Masculinity

A White Paper on Empowerment Self-Defense (ESD), the Role of Men—Past, Present, and Future

By Dr Dawn Malotane Lindsey

Executive Summary

This white paper argues that engaging men is essential to realizing the full promise of Empowerment Self‑Defense (ESD). Historically, men have been gatekeepers of safety norms and, at times, drivers of harm; today, evidence shows men can be powerful partners in prevention, as bystanders, coaches, peers, fathers, and community leaders. Positive masculinity—centering care, accountability, and courage—translates into measurable reductions in perpetration and increases in prosocial bystander action. Drawing on randomized trials and global reports, we outline a practical agenda for ESD practitioners to mobilize men in ways that benefit women, children, and men themselves.

1) Why This Matters

• Scope of harm: One in three women experience physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime (WHO, 2021). ESD demonstrates reductions in sexual violence when delivered with fidelity, but scaling impact requires changing male behaviors and norms as well.

• Men are part of the solution: Rigorous evaluations of bystander and perpetration‑prevention programs show reductions in violence and improvements in prosocial norms among boys and men (Green Dot; Coaching Boys Into Men; RealConsent). Men’s caregiving roles also correlate with more equitable attitudes and reduced acceptance of violence (State of the World’s Fathers, 2023).

• 
  

2) Men in ESD and Prevention: From History to Now

While ESD originated as a survivor‑centered response led by women, the broader prevention field increasingly recognizes structured roles for men: as trained bystanders intervening in risky situations; as peers who challenge harmful talk; as coaches who set norms on teams; and as fathers and mentors modeling care.

• Bystander programs: Cluster randomized trials in U.S. high schools (e.g., Green Dot) found population‑level reductions in sexual violence and related harms where students were trained to intervene.

• Athlete/coach models: The Coaching Boys Into Men trial with male athletes reduced dating violence perpetration through coach‑delivered messages and skill practice.

• Digital/education approaches: RealConsent, a six‑session web‑based program for college men, showed reductions in self‑reported sexual violence perpetration and improvements in bystander behaviors.

• 
  

3) Evidence Snapshots

• Kenya & Malawi: School‑based parallel trainings for girls (ESD) and boys (respect, intervention skills) significantly reduced sexual assault against girls; boys reported improved prosocial responses (Baiocchi et al.).

• High schools (U.S.): Green Dot cluster‑RCT demonstrated decreases in sexual and other interpersonal violence with sustained bystander diffusion.

• Coaches & male athletes (U.S.): Coaching Boys Into Men (cluster‑RCT) reduced dating violence perpetration.

• College men: RealConsent RCT improved bystander intentions and reduced self‑reported perpetration.

• Systematic/umbrella reviews: Reviews of bystander programs indicate beneficial effects on bystander behavior and intermediate outcomes.

4) Male Victimization: Engaging Men Also Helps Men

Men and boys experience violence and abuse, including intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual violence, though often underreported and stigmatized. Population‑based surveys (e.g., CDC’s NISVS) document male victimization of stalking, contact sexual violence, and IPV. A review of domestic violence against men highlights prevalence, risk factors, and barriers to disclosure and help‑seeking. Engagement strategies that cultivate positive masculinity—empathy, accountability, help‑seeking, peer support—can reduce harm to others and to men themselves.

5) Positive Masculinity in Practice for ESD

• Reframe strength as protection and care: Train boys/men to define courage as preventing harm and backing survivor‑centered norms.• Equip bystanders: Teach verbal and non‑verbal interruption strategies, diffusion tactics, and post‑incident support aligned with ESD.• Coach‑led micro‑interventions: Embed weekly, 5–10 minute norm‑setting drills in teams, clubs, and workplaces.• Fatherhood and caregiving: Promote equitable caregiving as a protective factor; integrate caregiving modules that link empathy with rejection of violence.• Peer accountability: Build men’s groups that practice calling‑in, not only calling‑out; track commitments and mutual support.• Data & reflection: Use shared metrics (bystander actions, perpetration self‑reports, help‑seeking by men) with safeguards for confidentiality and survivor safety.

6) Policy & Systems Implications

• Education systems: Include bystander and positive masculinity modules alongside ESD in secondary and tertiary curricula.

• Sports governing bodies: Mandate coach‑delivered prevention content and safeguarding standards.

• Public health & policing: Fund men‑and‑boys components as complements to survivor services; ensure referral pathways for male victims.

• Research partnerships: Prioritize trials that measure both safety for women/girls and benefits to men (reduced perpetration, mental health, help‑seeking).

References (selected)

·       World Health Organization. (2021). Violence Against Women Prevalence Estimates, 2018.

·       Baiocchi, M., et al. (2017). A behavior‑based intervention that prevents sexual assault. PubMed PMID: 27562036.

·       Stanford FSI. (2017). Rosenkranz Prize winner brings statistics to rape prevention in Kenya.

·       Coker, A. L., et al. (2017/2019). Green Dot High School cluster‑RCT results. PMC5737001; PMC6422968.

·       Miller, E., et al. (2012). Coaching Boys Into Men: Cluster‑RCT among male athletes. Journal of Adolescent Health.

·       Salazar, L. F., et al. (2020). RealConsent randomized‑controlled trial with college men. BMC Public Health.

·       Equimundo (Promundo). (2023). State of the World’s Fathers 2023.

·       CDC (2024). NISVS documentation and resources on male victimization.

·       Kolbe, V., et al. (2020). Domestic Violence Against Men—Prevalence and Risk Factors. Deutsches Ärzteblatt Int. (PMC7658679).

·       MenEngage Alliance. (2024–2025). Policy briefs and field guidance on engaging men and transforming masculinities.